Pretenders to the succession of 'AH, who were of the Zaidite persuasion, sought refuge amongst the Dailamites and began to proselytize them in the second half of the 3rd/c)th century. But the real wave of conversion did not come until the turn of the century, when the Zaidite Imam Hasan al-Utriish spent a considerable length of time in the region. The Zaidite Imams were supported by the Dailamite family of Banu Justan in their struggle for supremacy in Tabaristan, but at the beginning of the 4th/ioth century various Dailamite and Gilan military leaders began to supplant them. It was during this turbulent and uncertain period that 'All b. Buya ('Imad al-Daula), the founder of the Buyid empire, began his career. Our knowledge of 'Imad al-Daula's youth is at best fragmentary. If we accept that he died at the age of 5 7, he must have been born c. A.D. 891-2. It appears that, true to Dailamite tradition, he early embarked on a military career. He himself records that he was in his youth employed at the court of the Samanid prince Nasr b. Ahmad (301/913- 331/943) apparently in the prince's closest entourage. The next step in his advancement occurred when he entered the service of Makan b. Kakl, either at the suggestion of Nasr or of his own free will. Makan was a member of a princely Gilan family. He had espoused the cause of the 'Alid ruler of Tabaristan and in 924 had become governor of Gurgan. After the death of the former ruler he had made successful overture to the Samanids and had been appointed governor of the disputed territory of Ray. It is conceivable that 'Imad al-Daula joined Makan at this date (928). He must certainly have occupied a high position in Makan's army, for he was able to invite his two younger brothers, Hasan (the future Rukn al-Daula) and Ahmad (later known as Mu'izz al-Daula), to join him and to procure for them commissions in the army and in his own retinue. Hasan was then about 30 years old, Ahmad a boy of just 13.
Two years later, Makan took a politically fatal step when he decided to attack the Samanids in Khurasan; he managed to occupy Nishapur for a time, but was then defeated by Mardavlj, another Gilan prince, and forced to abandon Tabaristan. 'Imad alDaula was quick to join the victor's side along with his brothers, and he entered the service of Mardavlj just when the latter was preparing to subjugate the territory south of the Alburz range as far as Qazvln, with every intention of proceeding to the conquest of other provinces further south. Mardavlj soon recognized the capabilities of the Buyid, shortly afterwards entrusting him with the administration of the important town of Karaj, which had been the seat of the Dulafid princes. The itineraries of various geographers would seem to indicate that Karaj was in the neighbourhood of present-day Bahramabad, sixty miles southeast of Hamadan. It was situated at an important centre of communications, being at the junction of the north-south route from Ray to Ahvaz and the south-east route from Hamadan to Isfahan. After the overthrow of the Dulafids at the end of the 3rd/9th century, a vacuum had occurred here which the 'Abbasid governors of Isfahan and Shiraz had not been able to dispel. The appointment of 'Imad al-Daula as governor of Karaj may well have taken place in Tabaristan, since on his journey to his post he passed through Ray, where Vushmgir, one of Mardavlj's brothers, resided, as did the vizier al-'Amld, whose son was later to play an important part in connection with Rukn al-Daula. Meanwhile Mardavlj decided to terminate 'Imad al-Daula's appointment, probably because he wanted to administer Karaj himself. However, while in Ray 'Imad al-Daula won the favour of the vizier and from him discovered the prince's plan. In order to forestall his dismissal he speedily left Ray and took over control of Karaj.
The political situation at Karaj was confused. There seems to have been a small garrison of Dailamite soldiers, but these had been left to their own devices and were bored with inactivity. The surrounding mountains were in the hands of the Khurramites, adherents of a religious and political sect combining Shi'l and Zoroastrian elements. 'Imad al-Daula set about their subjugation systematically and seized a series of fortresses, which enhanced his reputation, and provided him with valuable spoils. Soon the entire region was in his hands. The riches he acquired from the Khurramites enabled him to hire more mercenaries, thereby building up his position. His qualities as a born leader were proved by the failure of Mardavij's attempts to stir up the soldiers in Karaj against him. Soon 'Imad al-Daula was in a position to contemplate an extension of his power. But at the same time he was obliged to prepare his army for the likelihood of an impending attack by Mardavij, who was bound sooner or later to try to put down his rebellious viceroy. 'Imad al-Daula now made the capture of nearby Isfahan his ambition, and there met with an unexpectedly brilliant success. The opposing army, though far outnumbering his own, came over with astonishing alacrity to his side when he appeared before the walls of the city. This in turn enhanced his wealth and his popularity with the mercenaries. He failed, however, to come to terms with the governor of Isfahan and, unable to establish the legality of his position, he abandoned the city in the face of Mardavij and, abandoning Karaj too, marched on the important town of Arrajan, between Khuzistan and Fars, which was ruled by the same governor as Isfahan. Here the same pattern of victory and spoils was repeated.
His march on Arrajan was probably in the nature of a foray, but he was doubtless already entertaining the prospect of setting up a kingdom in southern Iran. He therefore only spent the winter in Arrajan, and in spring 321/933 set off on a new campaign. In Fars he ran into an ally in the person of Zaid b. 'AH al-Naubandaganl, who possessed large estates in the mountains north of Kazariin and was on bad terms with the authorities in Baghdad. Judging by his name he may have been a descendant of 'All, who hoped that the Biiyid would provide military support for the advancement of his religious and political ambitions. Meanwhile Yaqut, the governor of Isfahan and Fars, had replaced Mardavij as 'Imad al-Daula's most immediate antagonist. A series of skirmishes culminated in a decisive battle from which the Biiyid emerged victorious. By treating them well, he also won the vanquished over to his side. The way was now open to Shiraz. In 322/May or June 934 he entered the capital city of Fars, which was to remain in the uninterrupted possession of the Biiyids until 1062.
After the capture of Shiraz 'Imad al-Daula strove to gain recognition by the caliph in order to forestall the claims of Mardavij. This time he was successful, though he had no intention of paying the requisite tribute. He accepted the insignia of his office as viceroy from the caliph's emissary, but then delayed the emissary with promises for two years, until the latter finally died in Shiraz without having achieved his mission of obtaining the tribute. This episode, insignificant in itself, prefigured the attitude which was to condition the subsequent policy of the Buyids towards the 'Abbasid caliphate. 'Imad al-Daula and his successors were by tradition Shi'i and of the Zaidite persuasion. It should be recalled that the Dailamites had been converted to Islam by Zaidite missionaries. Later the Buyids were to bend towards Twelver Shf ism, and even the Isma'ills were later accepted for brief periods at their court. Their Shi'l beliefs may have been varied in complexion, but they certainly had no religious reason for seeking the caliph's approval, let alone for setting themselves up as protectors of the caliphate after their capture of Baghdad. But whatever the arguments put forward to explain the moderation of the Buyids' policy towards the caliph and whatever they themselves asserted at the time, there can be no doubt that 'Imad al-Daula's decision to acknowledge at least formally the caliph's supremacy was to have a very considerable influence on future developments. His once valuable ally in Naubandagan meanwhile disappeared from the scene, as did a later Zaidite pretender who had accompanied Mu'izz al-Daula to Baghdad but who then returned to Tabaristan to further his own cause.
Mardavij was still 'Imad al-Daula's bitterest opponent. In order to sever any possible Buyid links with Iraq, and doubtless also to preclude the westward expansion of the Buyid Empire, Mardavij now embarked on a campaign against Khuzistan. He then came to an agreement with the caliph, thus forcing 'Imad al-Daula to recognize Mardavij's formal superiority. But this state of affairs came to an abrupt end with the murder of Mardavij in January 935. 'Imad al-Daula then began to press his claims to Khuzistan with the caliph, probably building on his position as second only to Mardavij. He occupied 'Askar Mukram and then came to terms with the caliph, who confirmed him in the possession of Fars and gave Khuzistan to Yaqut, the former governor of Fars.
The assassination of Mardavij in Isfahan, followed by the dispersal of his Turkish mercenaries, led to the collapse of Ziyarid rule in central Iran. Two of his Turkish officers, Tuzun and Bajkam, went to Baghdad, both reaching high position. A large number of the Turkish mercenaries joined 'Imad al-Daula in Shiraz, whereupon the latter felt that the opportunity had come to incorporate in his growing empire Isfahan, scene of his earliest triumphs. The command of this campaign he entrusted to his younger brother Hasan (Rukn al-Daula), who had distinguished himself in the battles in Fars and had then been sent as a hostage to the court of Mardavij at the time of his brother's truce with him, but had escaped at the time of Mardavij's assassination by bribing his keepers. Rukn al-Daula won an easy victory at Isfahan, particularly because Vushmgir, Mardavij's brother, was involved in engagements with the Samanids, who were again attacking Ray. Owing to internal discords, however, his triumph over the Ziyarids proved short-lived. Vushmgir took Isfahan three years later and Rukn al-Daula was forced to retreat to Fars. He set up camp before the gates of Istakhr and there awaited the moment for renewed action.
Soon after the capture of Isfahan 'Imad al-Daula sent his youngest brother Ahmad (Mu'izz al-Daula) to Kirman, a province which since 862 had been in the hands of the Saffarids. Shortly before the Buyids established themselves in Shiraz, Abu 'All b. Ilyas of Khurasan had driven the Saffarids out of Kirman (from now on they were confined to Sistan) and had forced them to recognize Samanid supremacy in 928. During 'Imad al-Daula's campaigns in Fars he had made a vain attempt to take Shiraz in a surprise attack. After the assassination of Mardavij 'Imad al-Daula seized the opportunity of expanding his realms towards the southeast. Rukn al-Daula was already in Isfahan; Mu'izz al-Daula however was still waiting for a kingdom. He had distinguished himself during the battle which had decided the struggle for Fars by his intrepid heroism, and now Kirman fell swiftly before him until he met resistance from the Qufs (Kufichis) and Baluchis. He was then recalled by 'Imad al-Daula and sent to Istakhr, there to await further calls to duty. Nevertheless his campaign in Kirman resulted in the permanent recognition of Buyid authority by the Banii Ilyas. The province was not to be annexed directly for several decades.
Iran under the Buyids
