First, it is difficult to distinguish the impacts of tourism from those of other social or economic developments. Second, few reliable tools exist to measure socio-cultural impacts, which are often intangible. Whereas tools such as economic multiplier analysis or environmental impact assessment can be used to gain quantifiable data, there are few such models that exist for measuring socio-cultural costs and benefits. However, it should be noted that anthropologists and ethnographers have been researching the phenomenon of cultural change for some time, but it is a complex, time-consuming process. Cooper et al. suggest that a number of techniques can be used to measure socio-cultural impacts of tourism, but that it is usually impossible to filter out other influences. The use of household surveys or questionnaires, focus group interviews, participant observation, or methods such as the Delphi Technique can be used to generate lists of impacts or indicators of social or cultural change. The following list suggests some of the indicators of change that might be used to identify socio-cultural impacts.
Tourism can raise the profile of a destination, attracting the interest of investors and visitors alike. It is not simply the case that many countries turn to tourism out of desperation, but because it affords their population a better standard of living. There are a number of benefits that may be derived from tourism provided that it is managed properly. These have, of course, been well documented in tourism literature and might include the creation of employment, the receipt of foreign exchange, the expansion of other economic sectors, and infrastructural developments. In environmental and socio-cultural terms, tourism development can provide a stimulus and funding for conservation, and the preservation of cultural heritage and traditions. Some of the more intangible benefits may include the renewal of cultural pride, the revitalisation of customs and traditions, and opportunities for cross-cultural exchange and integration. Again, these are more difficult to measure, but can be perceptible within local communities.
However, governments need to restrict the extent of outside investment, as otherwise this will lead inevitably to non-local ownership and management of facilities and services and high economic leakages. It is not simply a matter of encouraging local investment where possible; there also needs to be adequate provision of education and training schemes for local people if they are to be employed at all levels of tourism. As discussed above, it is more common for local people to be employed in low-level, often seasonal service jobs where they are subservient to the needs of tourists. Business skills training schemes are also becoming increasingly important, especially if entrepreneurship and small business development are to be encouraged.
Another economic difficulty lies in the inability of many destinations or countries to meet the demands of their tourism industry with their own local products. Although other economic sectors such as fishing or agriculture can be strengthened, supply is unlikely to meet demand if tourism increases rapidly. In the case of small island economies such as the Caribbean or the South Pacific, it might be possible to strengthen inter-island linkages, but there is still the inevitable need to import goods and experience the inevitable economic leakages. As stated above, tourists usually tend to demand Western-style amenities, especially in large global hotel chains and all-inclusive resorts. It is difficult to encourage tourists to spend their money outside the hotel or resort, especially if they are ‘psychocentric’ tourists who have no keen sense of adventure or no burning desire to try new things. Although most tourists can be encouraged to shop and buy local handcrafted goods, it is more difficult to insist on the consumption of local cuisine, for example.
Host–guest relationships and the socio-cultural impacts of tourism
