Romans such as Cicero considered ethical limitation in war. In De Officiis Cicero speaks of observing “the rights of war.” He says, “The only excuse, therefore, for going to war is that we may live in peace unharmed; and when the victory is won, we should spare those who have not been blood-thirsty and barbarous in their warfare”.
Despite fierce persecution of early Christians by the Romans, the most devoted followers of the crucified first-century rabbi Jesus of Nazareth practiced pacifism to the extreme of nonresistance to evil. Christianity was pacifistic for its first 300 years, with Christians understanding Jesus as having taught pacifism: “You have heard it was said, ‘an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth,’ but I say to you, do not resist an evil doer. If anyone strikes you on the right cheek, turn the other also” and “You have heard that it was said ‘you shall love your neighbor and hate your enemy,’ but I say to you, ‘love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you’”. At first Christians did not participate in war, but things changed with the conversion of Emperor Constantine in 313 along with his declaration of toleration of Christianity. One scholar suggests that the church conquered the empire only to be conquered by its captive.
In the fourth century the church adopted the teachings of Augustine on the just war, a code built upon earlier ideas of Plato and Cicero with Christian additions. Jesus’ words “resist not evil” were interpreted to require a spiritual attitude of love that did not preclude killing physically. This view of Christian morality insisted that attitudes, not actions, were right or wrong. As long as hate was avoided, salvation could be preserved despite killing. The life of the soul was paramount, the life of the body secondary, so much so that destroying physical life may even benefit a sinner. War requires the intention of restoring justice and building peace, and war must avoid massacre, looting, and atrocities; that is, war must be both just to enter and justly fought, and just war requires right authority—the emperor—to decide when to fight. With the union of the church and the empire, war can be morally accepted, even morally required.
Ancient Greece and Moral Analysis of War and Peace
